Perjanjian tidak setara
Perjanjian tidak setara | |||||||||||||
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Nama Tionghoa | |||||||||||||
Hanzi tradisional: | 不平等條約 | ||||||||||||
Hanzi sederhana: | 不平等条约 | ||||||||||||
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Nama Jepang | |||||||||||||
Kanji: | 不平等条約 | ||||||||||||
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Nama Korea | |||||||||||||
Hangul: | 불평등 조약 | ||||||||||||
Hanja: | 不平等條約 | ||||||||||||
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Perjanjian-perjanjian tidak setara adalah serangkaian kesepakatan yang dibuat antara negara-negara Asia—terutama Tiongkok Qing, Jepang Tokugawa, dan Korea Joseon—dan negara-negara Barat—terutama Britania Raya, Prancis, Jerman, Austria-Hungaria, Italia, Amerika Serikat dan Rusia—selama abad ke-19 dan awal abad ke-20.[1] Perjanjian-perjanjian ini seringkali ditandatangani setelah pihak Asia mengalami kekalahan militer, atau di tengah ancaman militer yang dibuat oleh pihak Barat. Persyaratan-persyaratannya merinci kewajiban-kewajiban yang harus ditanggung hampir sepenuhnya oleh pihak Asia dan termasuk ketentuan seperti penyerahan wilayah, pembayaran reparasi, pembukaan pelabuhan perjanjian, penyerahan hak untuk mengendalikan bea dan impor, dan pemberian ekstrateritorialitas kepada warganegara asing.[2]
Dengan meningkatnya nasionalisme Tiongkok dan anti-imperialisme pada tahun 1920-an, baik Kuomintang maupun Partai Komunis Tiongkok menggunakan konsep tersebut untuk mencirikan pengalaman Tiongkok kehilangan kedaulatannya antara sekitar tahun 1840 hingga 1950. Istilah "perjanjian tidak setara" kemudian dikaitkan dengan konsep "abad penghinaan" Tiongkok, terutama konsesi kepada negara asing dan hilangnya otonomi bea melalui pelabuhan perjanjian, dan terus menjadi pendorong utama bagi kebijakan luar negeri Tiongkok hingga hari ini.
Jepang dan Korea juga menggunakan istilah tersebut untuk merujuk pada beberapa perjanjian yang berakibat pada berkurangnya kedaulatan nasional mereka. Jepang dan Tiongkok menandatangani perjanjian dengan Korea seperti Perjanjian Jepang–Korea 1876 dan Perjanjian Tiongkok–Korea 1882, dengan masing-masing perjanjian memberikan hak istimewa kepada Jepang dan Tiongkok terkait dengan Korea. Jepang setelah Restorasi Meiji juga mulai memberlakukan perjanjian tidak setara terhadap Tiongkok setelah kemenangannya dalam Perang Tiongkok–Jepang Pertama untuk pengaruh atas Korea dan juga pelabuhan dan wilayah pesisir Tiongkok.
Tiongkok


Di Tiongkok, istilah "perjanjian-perjanjian tidak setara" pertama kali digunakan pada awal tahun 1920-an untuk menggambarkan perjanjian-perjanjian bersejarah, yang masih diberlakukan pada Republik Tiongkok, yang ditandatangani selama periode waktu yang dicirikan oleh sinologis Amerika John K. Fairbank sebagai "abad perjanjian" yang dimulai pada tahun 1840-an.[3] Istilah tersebut dipopulerkan oleh Sun Yat-sen.[4]
Dalam menilai penggunaan istilah tersebut dalam diskursus retoris sejak awal abad ke-20, sejarawan Amerika Dong Wang memperhatikan bahwa "meskipun istilah itu telah lama digunakan secara luas, istilah tersebut tidak memiliki arti yang jelas dan tanpa ambiguitas" dan bahwa "tidak ada kesepakatan mengenai jumlah sebenarnya dari perjanjian-perjanjian yang ditandatangani antara Tiongkok dan negara asing yang seharusnya dianggap sebagai tidak setara."[3] Meskipun begitu, dalam lingkup kesarjanaan historiografis Tiongkok, istilah ini umumnya didefinisikan merujuk pada banyak kasus di mana Tiongkok secara efektif dipaksa untuk membayar sejumlah besar reparasi keuangan, membuka pelabuhan untuk perdagangan, melepaskan atau menyewakan wilayah-wilayah (seperti Manchuria Luar dan Tiongkok Barat Laut Luar (termasuk Zhetysu) kepada Kekaisaran Rusia, Hong Kong dan Weihaiwei kepada Britania Raya, Guangzhouwan kepada Prancis, Wilayah Sewaan Kwantung dan Taiwan kepada Kekaisaran Jepang, dan konsesi Teluk Kiautschou kepada Kekaisaran Jerman dan wilayah konsesi di Tientsin, Shamian, Hankou, Shanghai etc.), dan membuat berbagai konsesi kedaulatan lainnya kepada lingkup-lingkup pengaruh asing, menyusul ancaman militer.[5]
Sinologis Tionghoa-Amerika Immanuel Hsu menyatakan bahwa Tiongkok memandang perjanjian-perjanjian yang mereka tandatangani dengan negara-negara Barat dan Rusia sebagai tidak setara "karena mereka tidak dinegosiasikan oleh negara-negara dengan memperlakukan satu sama lain sebagai setara, tetapi diberlakukan secara paksa kepada Tiongkok setelah sebuah perang, dan karena perjanjian-perjanjian itu melanggar hak-hak kedaulatan Tiongkok ... yang merendahkannya menjadi negara setengah jajahan".[6]
The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War. The first treaty between the Qing dynasty and the United Kingdom termed "unequal" was the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842.[5]
Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign missionaries, at least in theory, to reside within China. Foreign residents in the port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the Chinese legal system, a concept termed extraterritoriality.[5] Under the treaties, the UK and the US established the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and United States Court for China in Shanghai.
The unequal treaties gave European powers jurisdiction over missions in China and some authority over Chinese Christians.[7]
Chinese post-World War I resentment
After World War I, patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties, which now became widely known as "unequal treaties." The Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective.[5] Germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized the Washington Conference to negotiate them.[8]
After Chiang Kai-shek declared a new national government in 1927, the Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition, arousing anxiety in Japan.[8] The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties, and that the time for such treaties was over, demanding they renegotiate all of them on equal terms.[9]
Towards the end of the unequal treaties
After the Boxer Rebellion and the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, Germany began to reassess its policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested a trilateral German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14, 1917, when it broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, thereby terminating the concessions it had given that country, with China declaring war on Germany on August 17, 1917.[10]
As World War I commenced, these acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861, resulting in the reinstatement of Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919, the post-war peace negotiations failed to return the territories in Shandong, previously under German colonial control, back to the Republic of China. After it was determined that the Japanese forces occupying those territories since 1914 would be allowed to retain them under the Treaty of Versailles, the Chinese delegate Wellington Koo refused to sign the peace agreement, with China being the only conference member to boycott the signing ceremony. Widely perceived in China as a betrayal of the country's wartime contributions by the other conference members, the domestic backlash following the failure to restore Shandong would cause the collapse of the cabinet of the Duan Qirui government and lead to the May 4th movement.[11][12]
On May 20, 1921, China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes) a diplomatic accord which was considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation.[10]
During the Nanjing period, the Republic of China unsuccessfully sought to negotiate an end to the unequal treaties.[13]
Many treaties China considered unequal were repealed during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, China became an ally with the United Kingdom and the United States, which then signed treaties with China to end British and American extraterritoriality in January 1943.[14] Significant examples outlasted World War II: treaties regarding Hong Kong remained in place until Hong Kong's 1997 handover, though in 1969, to improve Sino-Soviet relations in the wake of military skirmishes along their border, the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Treaty of Peking.[butuh rujukan]
Daftar perjanjian-perjanjian tidak setara
Dikenakan pada Tiongkok
Dikenakan pada Jepang
Dikenakan pada Korea
Referensi
- ^ "Unequal Treaties with China". Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe. Diakses tanggal 2022-05-22.
- ^ Fravel, M. Taylor (2005-10-01). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. ISSN 0162-2889. S2CID 56347789.
- ^ a b Wang, Dong. (2005). China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780739112083.
- ^ Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
- ^ a b c d Dong Wang, China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2005).
- ^ Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. (1970). The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239. ISBN 0195012402.
- ^ Moody, Peter (2024). "The Vatican and Taiwan: An Anomalous Diplomatic Relationship". Dalam Zhao, Suisheng (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781032861661.
- ^ a b Akira Iriye, After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East, 1921–1931 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965; Reprinted: Chicago: Imprint Publications, 1990), passim.
- ^ "CHINA: Nationalist Notes". TIME. June 25, 1928. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal November 21, 2010. Diakses tanggal April 11, 2011.
- ^ a b Andreas Steen: Deutsch-chinesische Beziehungen 1911-1927: Vom Kolonialismus zur „Gleichberechtigung“. Eine Quellensammlung. Berlin, Akademie-Verlag 2006, S. 221.
- ^ Dreyer, June Teufel (2015). China's Political System. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-317-34964-8
- ^ "May Fourth Movement". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Laikwan, Pang (2024). One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503638815.
- ^ "FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: DIPLOMATIC PAPERS, 1943, CHINA". Diakses tanggal July 7, 2024.
- ^ Ingemar Ottosson (2019). Möten i monsunen.
- ^ Auslin, Michael R. (2004) Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy, p. 17., hlm. 17, pada Google Books
- ^ Auslin, p. 30., hlm. 30, pada Google Books
- ^ Auslin, pp. 1, 7., hlm. 1, pada Google Books
- ^ Auslin, p. 71., hlm. 71, pada Google Books
- ^ Auslin, Michael R. (2004) Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy, p. 154., hlm. 154, pada Google Books
- ^ Howland, Douglas (2016). International Law and Japanese Sovereignty: The Emerging Global Order in the 19th Century. Springer. ISBN 9781137567772.
- ^ Dreyer, June Teufel (2016). Middle Kingdom and Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present (dalam bahasa Inggris). Oxford University Press. hlm. 49. ISBN 978-0-19-537566-4.
- ^ Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament, p. 33., hlm. 33, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty Between Japan and Korea, dated February 26, 1876."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 29., hlm. 29, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Korea. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated May 22, 1882."
- ^ Moon, Myungki. "Korea-China Treaty System in the 1880s and the Opening of Seoul: Review of the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules," Diarsipkan October 5, 2011, di Wayback Machine. Journal of Northeast Asian History, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Dec 2008), pp. 85–120.
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Germany and Korea. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated November 23, 1883."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Great Britain and Korea ... dated November 26, 1883."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Russia. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated June 25, 1884."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Italy. Treaty of Friendship and Commerce dated June 26, 1884."
- ^ Yi, Kwang-gyu and Joseph P. Linskey. (2003). Korean Traditional Culture, p. 63., hlm. 63, pada Google Books; excerpt, "The so-called Hanseong Treaty was concluded between Korea and Japan. Korea paid compensation for Japanese losses. Japan and China worked out the Tien-Tsin Treaty, which ensured that both Japanese and Chinese troops withdraw from Korea."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and France. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated June 4, 1886."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Austria. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated July 23, 1892."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Belgium. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated March 23, 1901."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 32., hlm. 32, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Denmark. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated July 15, 1902."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 34., hlm. 34, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904."
- ^ Note that the Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, D.C., 1921–1922 identified this as "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904"
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 35., hlm. 35, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904."
- ^ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904"
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 35., hlm. 35, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905."
- ^ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905"
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 35., hlm. 35, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905."
- ^ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905"
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 35., hlm. 35, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905."
- ^ Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905"
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 35., hlm. 35, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated July 24, 1907."
- ^ Korean Mission, p. 36., hlm. 36, pada Google Books; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 20, 1910."
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